Introduction: The Vocabulary of Liberation
Hindu philosophy, particularly the Vedantic tradition, has developed a rich and precise vocabulary over thousands of years. These concepts are not mere academic abstractions. They are direct pointers to the nature of reality, the self, and the path to liberation. This comprehensive list covers the major concepts from the Vedas, Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, Brahma Sutras, and the six orthodox schools (Darshanas). Use it as a reference for study and contemplation.
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A
Abhasa — Reflection, appearance. The reflection of pure consciousness (Chit) in the mind, giving rise to the individual ego (Jiva). Also called Chidabhasa. The reflected consciousness is not the original but is mistaken for it.
Abhava — Non-existence, absence. A key concept in Nyaya and Vaisheshika philosophy. There are four types: prior non-existence (before creation), posterior non-existence (after destruction), mutual non-existence (difference), and absolute non-existence (never exists).
Abheda — Non-difference, identity. The Advaita view that the individual self (Jiva) and Brahman are identical in essence. Contrasted with Bheda (difference).
Abhidheya — The means of attainment. In Vedantic theology, the second of three stages: the means (Abhidheya) to reach the goal (Prayojana), based on the scripture (Pramana). For example, Bhakti is the Abhidheya for reaching Ishvara.
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Abhyasa — Repeated practice, spiritual discipline. One of the two essential components of meditation (the other being Vairagya, detachment). Consistent effort to still the mind and abide in the Self. The Bhagavad Gita (Chapter 6, Verse 35) states that the mind is controlled by Abhyasa and Vairagya.
Achara — Conduct, behavior, practice. Ethical and ritual conduct prescribed by scripture. Right conduct is essential for purification of the mind.
Acharya — A teacher, preceptor. One who teaches by example. A title for great teachers like Shankara (Shankaracharya) and Ramanuja (Ramanujacharya).
Adharma — Unrighteousness, irreligion. That which is contrary to Dharma. Actions that lead to bondage, suffering, and lower births. The opposite of Dharma.
Adhikara — Qualification, eligibility. The right or qualification to perform a certain action or study a certain scripture. Not everyone is qualified for Vedantic study; the seeker must possess the fourfold qualifications (Sadhana Chatushtaya).
Adhikarin — A qualified seeker. One who possesses the necessary qualifications (Adhikara) for the path. In Vedanta, the Adhikarin has Viveka, Vairagya, Shatsampatti, and Mumukshutva.
Adhishtana — Substratum, underlying reality. The real entity that supports an illusory appearance. The rope is the Adhishtana of the snake illusion. Brahman is the Adhishtana of the universe.
Adhyaropa — Superimposition, provisional teaching. The pedagogical method of first teaching a lower truth as a stepping stone, then negating it with a higher truth (Apavada). Example: teaching creation before revealing non-creation (Ajativada).
Adhyasa — Superimposition, false attribution. The natural human tendency to mistake one thing for another. Mistaking the body for the Self, the world for reality, the snake for the rope. The root cause of bondage according to Advaita. Shankara’s preamble to the Brahma Sutras (Adhyasa Bhashya) is a detailed analysis of Adhyasa.
Adrishta — Unseen, invisible. The karmic potency that determines the unseen results of actions. Also called Apurva. A key concept in Purva Mimamsa.
Advaita — Non-duality, not-two. The core teaching of Advaita Vedanta that there is only one ultimate reality (Brahman) without a second. All distinctions (self-other, subject-object, good-bad) are ultimately unreal. The most influential school of Vedanta.
Agama — Traditional scripture, that which has come down. Another term for the Vedas. Also refers to Tantric scriptures.
Agami Karma — Future karma. The karma being created in the present moment through current actions. Will bear fruit in future lives. Also called Kriyamana Karma. One of the three types of karma (with Sanchita and Prarabdha).
Aghamarsana — The “sin-destroying” hymn of the Rig Veda (10.190). Recited for purification.
Agni — Fire; the god of fire. One of the five elements (Pancha Mahabhutas). The presiding deity of the Vedic fire sacrifice (Yajna). The messenger between humans and gods.
Aham — “I”; the sense of self. The first-person pronoun. In its pure sense, points to the Self (Atman). In its impure sense, refers to the ego (Ahamkara).
Aham Brahmasmi — “I am Brahman.” One of the four Mahavakyas (Great Sayings) from the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (1.4.10). The direct declaration of the identity of the individual self with the ultimate reality. To be realized, not merely repeated.
Ahamkara — Ego, “I-maker.” The faculty of the inner instrument (Antahkarana) that creates the sense of a separate, individual self. Claims ownership of actions, thoughts, possessions, and experiences. The root of bondage and suffering when mistaken for the true Self. Essential for functioning in the world, but must be seen through.
Ahimsa — Non-violence, non-harming. The first and most important ethical virtue in Hindu philosophy. Not causing harm to any living being in thought, word, or deed. One of the five Yamas (ethical restraints) in Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras. Practiced by Mahatma Gandhi as a political and spiritual principle.
Ajativada — The doctrine of non-creation. The Advaita teaching, particularly associated with Gaudapada (Mandukya Karika), that from the absolute perspective, the universe was never created, has no beginning, and is only an appearance (Maya) in Brahman. A radical expression of non-duality.
Akasha — Space, ether. The subtlest of the five great elements (Pancha Mahabhutas). The first element to emerge from Brahman. All-pervading. The quality of Akasha is sound (Shabda). In Advaita, Akasha is Mithya; Brahman is the substratum of Akasha.
Akshara — Imperishable, indestructible. A name for Brahman, the unchanging reality. Also refers to the sacred syllable OM. In the Bhagavad Gita (Chapter 8, Verse 3), Akshara is identified with Brahman.
Anadi — Beginningless. Ignorance (Avidya) is described as Anadi — it has no starting point in time. However, it is not eternal; it ends with Self-knowledge (Jnana). The universe (Samsara) is also Anadi.
Ananda — Bliss, joy, happiness. The third aspect of Brahman (Sat-Chit-Ananda). Not temporary pleasure (Sukha), but the eternal, unconditional bliss of the Self. Experienced when the mind is still and identification with the ego is absent. The highest happiness.
Anandamaya Kosha — The bliss sheath. The fifth and subtlest of the five sheaths (Pancha Kosha) covering the Self. The state of deep sleep (Sushupti) and the causal body (Karana Sharira). Called “bliss” because it is free from the agitation of the mind and senses, but it is still a covering, not the Self.
Anatman — Not-Self. Anything that is not the true Self — the body, mind, senses, ego, and world. The Buddhist doctrine of No-Self (Anatman) is distinguished from the Vedantic Atman. In Advaita, Anatman is what is negated through Neti Neti.
Anirvacaniya — Indescribable, inexpressible. Maya is said to be Anirvacaniya — neither real (Sat) nor unreal (Asat). Cannot be categorized as either being or non-being. A key term in Advaita epistemology.
Antahkarana — The inner instrument. The collective name for the four functions of the mind: Manas (mind), Buddhi (intellect), Ahamkara (ego), and Chitta (memory). The subtle instrument through which the Jiva experiences the world and acts.
Antaryamin — The Inner Controller. The Self (Atman) as the indwelling witness and controller within all beings. A term from the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (3.7.3). The Antaryamin is not affected by the beings it controls.
Anubhava — Direct experience, realization. Not intellectual understanding, but direct, non-conceptual knowing of the Self. The goal of Vedanta is Anubhava, not mere belief or intellectual comprehension.
Anugraha — Grace. The descent of divine grace, essential for final Self-realization. Also called Shaktipata (descent of power). Cannot be earned by effort alone; it is the Self revealing itself when the ego steps aside. Recognized in all schools of Vedanta.
Anumana — Inference, logical reasoning. One of the three means of valid knowledge (Pramanas) in Vedanta (with Pratyaksha and Shabda). Used in the reflection stage (Manana) to remove doubts. Example: “There is fire on the hill because there is smoke.”
Anvaya-Vyatireka — Method of agreement and difference. A logical method for determining the essential nature of something. Used in Vedantic analysis to distinguish the Self from the not-Self.
Apana — One of the five vital energies (Pranas). Responsible for downward-moving functions: excretion, elimination, childbirth, and the expulsion of vital energy at death.
Apara Vidya — Lower knowledge. Knowledge of the empirical world — the Vedas, rituals, grammar, arts, sciences. Useful for worldly life but does not lead to liberation. Distinguished from Para Vidya (higher knowledge) in the Mundaka Upanishad (1.1.4-5).
Apavada — Negation, removal, cancellation. The second stage of the Adhyaropa-Apavada method. After a provisional teaching is given (Adhyaropa), it is negated to reveal the higher truth. Example: after teaching creation, one negates it with Ajativada.
Aparigraha — Non-possessiveness, non-hoarding. One of the five Yamas (ethical restraints) in Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras. Freedom from greed and the accumulation of unnecessary possessions.
Apurva — “Not previously existing.” The unseen potency created by Vedic rituals that produces the desired result (heaven, etc.) in the future. A key concept in Purva Mimamsa.
Arjuna — The warrior prince and main character of the Bhagavad Gita. Disciple of Krishna. Represents the sincere seeker confused about duty, the Self, and the path to liberation. His name means “white” or “bright.”
Artha — Wealth, prosperity, material security. One of the four goals of life (Purusharthas). Legitimate when pursued within the bounds of Dharma. Not an end in itself, but a means to support Dharma and Moksha.
Arundhati Nyaya — The method of pointing to Arundhati (a star). A pedagogical method where a teacher first points to a prominent star, then to the less prominent Arundhati. Used in Vedanta to teach the subtle through the gross.
Asamprajnata Samadhi — The highest state of meditation in Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras. A state of complete absorption without any mental object (without seed, Nirbija). The mind is completely still. Not the final goal of Vedanta, but a powerful preparation for Self-knowledge.
Asana — Posture. The third limb of Patanjali’s Ashtanga Yoga. A steady, comfortable sitting posture for meditation. Also refers to physical postures in Hatha Yoga.
Asat — Absolute non-existence, unreal. That which never exists at any time, in any place, under any condition. Examples: a barren woman’s son, a sky-flower, the horns of a hare. Distinguished from Mithya (relative reality) and Sat (absolute reality).
Ashrama — Stage of life. The four traditional stages in the Hindu lifespan: Brahmacharya (student), Grihastha (householder), Vanaprastha (forest-dweller), Sannyasa (renunciate). Each stage has its own duties (Dharma) and goals.
Ashraya — Locus, substrate. The substratum in which something inheres. In Advaita, ignorance (Avidya) is said to have Brahman as its Ashraya — a controversial but key doctrine of the Sringeri lineage.
Ashtanga Yoga — The eight-limbed yoga of Patanjali: Yama (restraints), Niyama (observances), Asana (posture), Pranayama (breath control), Pratyahara (sense withdrawal), Dharana (concentration), Dhyana (meditation), Samadhi (absorption).
Asteya — Non-stealing. The third of the five Yamas (ethical restraints). Not taking what is not freely given. Includes not stealing others’ credit, time, or energy.
Atman — The true Self. Pure, eternal, unchanging, blissful consciousness. Not the body, not the mind, not the ego, not the intellect. Identical with Brahman in Advaita Vedanta. The goal of Vedanta is to realize “I am Atman.”
Avachheda Vada — The doctrine of limitation. The Advaita view that the Jiva is Brahman limited by the Upadhis (body-mind). Like space limited by a pot. Distinguished from Pratibimba Vada (reflection doctrine).
Avarana — Veiling. The veiling power of Maya (or Avidya). Hides the true nature of Brahman, making it appear unknown or hidden. One of the two powers of Maya (with Vikshepa, projection).
Avidya — Ignorance. The root cause of bondage and suffering. The mistaken identification of the Self with the body-mind-ego (Adhyasa). Not a simple lack of knowledge, but a positive misapprehension of reality. Removed by Jnana (Self-knowledge). Described as beginningless (Anadi) but not eternal.
Avidya Nivritti — The removal of ignorance. The goal of Vedantic practice. Achieved through Jnana (Self-knowledge). Not by destroying Avidya, but by seeing through it.
Avyakta — Unmanifest. The primordial, undifferentiated state of Prakriti (nature) before manifestation. Also called Pradhana. In the Bhagavad Gita (Chapter 8, Verse 18), Avyakta is the state from which all beings emerge and into which they dissolve.
Ayam Atma Brahma — “This Self is Brahman.” One of the four Mahavakyas from the Mandukya Upanishad (Verse 2). Points to the immediate presence of the Self as identical with the ultimate reality. The most direct of the Mahavakyas.
Ayurveda — “The science of life.” The traditional system of medicine in India. Considered an Upaveda (secondary Veda) attached to the Atharva Veda.
B
Badarayana — The traditional author of the Brahma Sutras (also called Vedanta Sutras). Identified with Vyasa, the compiler of the Vedas and author of the Mahabharata. Lived around 400-200 BCE (traditional dating varies).
Bandha — Bondage. The state of being bound by ignorance (Avidya), karma, and the cycle of birth and death (Samsara). The opposite of Moksha (liberation). Bondage is not real from the absolute perspective; it is a superimposition.
Bandha-Moksha — Bondage and liberation. A key topic in Vedanta. Bondage is due to ignorance; liberation is due to knowledge. Both are ultimately unreal from the absolute perspective (Paramarthika).
Bhagavad Gita — The most important practical text of Vedanta. A dialogue between Krishna and Arjuna on the battlefield of Kurukshetra. Often called the “essence of the Upanishads” (Upanishad-bhashya). 700 verses divided into 18 chapters. Teaches Karma Yoga, Bhakti Yoga, Jnana Yoga, and Raja Yoga.
Bhagavan — The Lord, the Divine with attributes (Saguna Brahman). A personal God worthy of worship. One who possesses six attributes in fullness: all power, all virtue, all glory, all beauty, all knowledge, all renunciation.
Bhakti — Devotion, love for the Divine. The path of Bhakti Yoga. Considered by the Bhagavad Gita (Chapter 12) as the highest and easiest path for most seekers. Bhakti is not blind faith; it is intense love and surrender.
Bhakti Yoga — The path of devotion. One of the four main Yogas. Involves prayer, chanting (Japa), worship (Puja), and surrender (Prapatti) to a personal God (Ishvara). Leads to purification of the mind and ultimately to Self-knowledge.
Bhashya — Commentary. A systematic explanation of a sacred text. The most famous Bhashyas are Shankara’s commentaries on the Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, and Brahma Sutras. Other major Bhashyas include Ramanuja’s Sri Bhashya and Madhva’s Brahma Sutra Bhashya.
Bheda — Difference, distinction. The Dvaita view that there is eternal difference between Brahman and Jiva, Brahman and the world, and among Jivas. Contrasted with Abheda (non-difference).
Bhedabheda — Difference and non-difference. A school of Vedanta (associated with Nimbarka) that holds that the Jiva is both different and not different from Brahman. A middle position between Advaita and Dvaita.
Bija — Seed. The seed of karma or samskara. The potential form of an impression that will sprout into a future experience or birth. Also a seed mantra (like OM).
Brahma — The creator god in the Hindu trinity (with Vishnu and Shiva). Not to be confused with Brahman (the ultimate reality). Brahma is a manifested being, while Brahman is the unmanifest absolute.
Brahmacharya — Celibacy, self-control. The first stage of life (Ashrama) as a student. Also one of the five Yamas (ethical restraints) — not just celibacy but control of all senses and the redirection of energy toward spiritual goals.
Brahman — The ultimate reality, absolute consciousness. Sat-Chit-Ananda (Existence-Consciousness-Bliss). Nirguna (without attributes) in its highest aspect, Saguna (with attributes) as Ishvara. The substrate (Adhishtana) of the entire universe. Not a being, but being itself. The central concept of Vedanta.
Brahmananda — The bliss of Brahman. The highest, unconditional bliss. Distinguished from the temporary pleasure (Sukha) of sense objects.
Brahmanishtha — Established in Brahman. A person who has realized the Self and abides in Brahman. One of the two essential qualifications of a true Guru (the other being Shrotriya, learned in the scriptures).
Brahma Sutras — The foundational text of Vedanta philosophy. Also called Vedanta Sutras. Attributed to Badarayana (Vyasa). Approximately 555 aphorisms divided into four chapters (Adhyayas). Systematizes the teachings of the Upanishads. One of the three pillars of Vedanta (Prasthana Trayi).
Brahmavadin — One who teaches or follows the path of Brahman. A seeker of Self-knowledge.
Brahmavidya — The knowledge of Brahman. The highest knowledge, leading to liberation. The goal of Vedantic study.
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad — One of the principal Upanishads (Shukla Yajur Veda). The largest and one of the oldest Upanishads. Contains the Yajnavalkya-Maitreyi dialogue, the Neti Neti teaching, and the Mahavakya “Aham Brahmasmi.”
Buddhi — Intellect, higher mind. The faculty of discrimination (Viveka) and decision-making. One of the four functions of the Antahkarana. Acts as the charioteer in the chariot analogy of the Katha Upanishad. Purified Buddhi leads to liberation; impure Buddhi leads to bondage.
C
Chaitanya — Consciousness. Pure awareness. Synonym for Atman and Brahman. Distinguished from the modifications of consciousness (Vrittis).
Chakras — Energy centers in the subtle body. In Tantric and Yogic traditions, seven main Chakras: Muladhara (root), Svadhisthana (sacral), Manipura (solar plexus), Anahata (heart), Vishuddhi (throat), Ajna (third eye), Sahasrara (crown).
Chandogya Upanishad — One of the principal Upanishads (Sama Veda). Contains the famous teaching “Tat Tvam Asi” (That you are), repeated nine times with analogies (clay and pot, gold and ornament, etc.). Also contains the teaching of the five fires (Panchagni Vidya).
Chidabhasa — Reflected consciousness. The reflection of pure consciousness (Chit) in the mind, which is mistaken for the true Self. The ego (Jiva). See also Abhasa.
Chit — Consciousness. The second aspect of Brahman (Sat-Chit-Ananda). Pure, self-luminous awareness. Not a property of matter; the very nature of reality. The subject, never an object.
Chitta — Memory, the storehouse of impressions. One of the four functions of the Antahkarana. Stores Samskaras (latent impressions) from past experiences. The goal of Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras is to still the modifications (Vrittis) of Chitta.
Chitta Vritti Nirodhah — The definition of Yoga from Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras (1.2): “Yoga is the stilling of the modifications of the mind.”
D
Dama — Self-control, restraint. One of the six virtues (Shatsampatti) required for Vedantic study. Control of the senses (Indriyas). Essential for concentration and meditation.
Darshana — Vision, direct perception. Also refers to the six orthodox schools (Darshanas) of Indian philosophy: Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa, Vedanta. Also the auspicious sight of a deity or holy person.
Daya — Compassion. One of the essential qualities of a devotee (Bhagavad Gita Chapter 12). Seeing the same Self in all, compassion arises naturally. Also listed as a virtue in various ethical codes.
Deha — Body. The physical form. In Vedanta, the body is not the Self. There are three bodies: gross (Sthula Sharira), subtle (Sukshma Sharira), and causal (Karana Sharira).
Deva — God, deity. A celestial being. In Vedanta, all deities are manifestations of the one Brahman (Saguna Brahman). The Devas are considered higher beings but are still within Samsara.
Devayana — The path of light (also called Archiradi Marga). The path taken by the soul after death that leads to liberation (no return). Contrasted with Pitriyana (the path of darkness). Described in the Chandogya and Brihadaranyaka Upanishads.
Dharana — Concentration. The sixth limb of Patanjali’s Ashtanga Yoga. Fixing the mind on a single point. The preliminary stage before meditation (Dhyana).
Dharma — Righteous duty, cosmic order, ethical law. That which upholds the individual, society, and the cosmos. One of the four goals of life (Purusharthas). The foundation of the other three goals (Artha, Kama, Moksha). Often translated as “religion,” but broader in scope.
Dharmashastra — The texts on Dharma (law, ethics, duty). Includes the Manusmriti and other legal texts. Secondary scripture (Smriti), not Shruti.
Dhyana — Meditation. The seventh limb of Patanjali’s Ashtanga Yoga. Sustained, uninterrupted flow of concentration on a single object. Also a path (Dhyana Yoga) taught in Chapter 6 of the Bhagavad Gita.
Dhyana Yoga — The path of meditation. The sixth chapter of the Bhagavad Gita. Teaches the practice of meditation and its results.
Dravya — Substance. A category in Vaisheshika philosophy. The nine substances are: earth, water, fire, air, space, time, direction, mind, self.
Drishti — Vision, seeing. Also refers to a philosophical view or perspective. In Advaita, Drishti-Srishti Vada (creation through perception) is a radical view.
Drishti-Srishti Vada — The doctrine of simultaneous creation and perception. The Advaita view that the world is created at the moment it is perceived, not pre-existing independently. Contrasted with Srishti-Drishti Vada.
Dukha — Suffering, pain, dissatisfaction. The fundamental problem of human existence according to all Indian philosophies. The goal of Vedanta is the end of Dukha through Self-knowledge. The first Noble Truth of Buddhism.
Dvaita — Dualism. The school of Vedanta founded by Madhvacharya (13th century CE). Teaches that Brahman (Vishnu) and the individual soul (Jiva) are eternally distinct. Five eternal differences: between Brahman and Jiva, Brahman and world, Jiva and Jiva, Jiva and world, and among objects of the world.
Dvandva — Pairs of opposites. Pleasure and pain, success and failure, praise and blame, heat and cold. The wise person is not disturbed by Dvandva. The goal is to transcend them through equanimity (Samatvam).
E
No terms. Most Sanskrit terms begin with vowels or consonants that are not ‘E’.
F
No terms. Sanskrit does not have native ‘F’ sounds.
G
Gaudapada — The grand-teacher (Paramaguru) of Adi Shankara. Author of the Mandukya Karika, the first systematic exposition of Advaita Vedanta. Taught the doctrine of Ajativada (non-creation). Lived around the 6th-7th century CE.
Gayatri Mantra — The most sacred Vedic mantra from the Rig Veda (3.62.10). Addressed to the sun (Savitri). Chanted daily by many Hindus. Contains 24 syllables.
Gita — Short for Bhagavad Gita. See Bhagavad Gita.
Grihastha — Householder. The second stage of life (Ashrama). Characterized by marriage, family, career, and social responsibilities. Considered the most important Ashrama because it supports all others. Can attain Moksha through Karma Yoga and Jnana Yoga.
Guna — Quality, attribute. Specifically, the three Gunas of Prakriti (nature): Sattva (harmony, purity), Rajas (activity, passion), Tamas (inertia, ignorance). All material phenomena are composed of these three Gunas in varying proportions. Brahman is beyond the Gunas (Nirguna).
Guru — Teacher, spiritual preceptor. One who dispels darkness (Gu = darkness, Ru = dispeller). A true Guru is both learned in the scriptures (Shrotriya) and established in Brahman (Brahmanishtha). The Guru is essential for traditional Vedantic study.
Guru Parampara — The unbroken lineage of teachers and disciples through which the Vedantic teaching is transmitted. Essential for preserving the purity of the teaching. The lineage from Shankara to the present pontiffs of the Sringeri Matha is an example.
Guru Purnima — The full moon day dedicated to the Guru. Celebrates Vyasa (the Adi Guru) and all gurus. A day for expressing gratitude to one’s spiritual teachers.
H
Hamsa — Swan. Symbol of discrimination (Viveka). The legendary Hamsa can separate milk from water. Symbolizes the ability to discriminate between the real (Self) and the unreal (world). Also a mantra (“So’ham” — “I am That”).
Hatha Yoga — A branch of Yoga focusing on physical postures (Asanas), breath control (Pranayama), and purification practices (Shatkarmas). Prepares the body for meditation.
Hiranyagarbha — “Golden womb” or “golden egg.” The cosmic being, the first-born of creation. In Vedanta, a name for Saguna Brahman (Ishvara) as the creator.
I
Indra — The king of the gods in Vedic mythology. Represents the mind or the ego in Vedantic symbolism. His victory over Vritra (the serpent of drought and chaos) symbolizes the conquest of the ego.
Indriya — Sense organ. The five Jnanendriyas (organs of perception): hearing (Shrotra), touch (Tvak), sight (Chakshu), taste (Rasana), smell (Ghrana). The five Karmendriyas (organs of action): speech (Vak), grasping (Pani), walking (Pada), excretion (Payu), procreation (Upastha).
Isha Upanishad — One of the principal Upanishads (Shukla Yajur Veda). The shortest (18 verses). Teaches that all is enveloped by the Lord (Isha vasyam idam sarvam) and that one should enjoy through renunciation (tena tyaktena bhunjitha). Contains the prayer to the sun to remove the golden lid of truth.
Ishvara — The Lord, personal God. Saguna Brahman (Brahman with attributes). The creator, preserver, and destroyer of the universe. The object of devotion (Bhakti). The ruler of karma. In Advaita, Ishvara is Brahman as seen through Maya.
Ishvara Pranidhana — Surrender to the Lord. One of the five Niyamas (observances) in Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras. Offering all actions and their results to the Divine.
J
Jagrat — The waking state. One of the three states of consciousness. Correlated with the “A” of OM in the Mandukya Upanishad. The state where the Jiva experiences external objects through the senses.
Janaka — A legendary king of Mithila, father of Sita, and a liberated householder (Jivanmukta). Cited in the Bhagavad Gita (Chapter 3, Verse 20) as an example of attaining perfection through action. A model for householders on the spiritual path.
Japa — Repetition of a mantra. A common practice in Bhakti Yoga. Can be done silently (Manasika Japa), whispering (Upamsu Japa), or aloud (Vaikhari Japa). Often done with a mala (rosary) of 108 beads.
Jiva — The individual soul. Atman as limited by the body-mind-ego due to ignorance (Avidya). The Jiva appears to be born, suffer, and die. In reality, the Jiva is identical with Brahman. The traveler through Samsara.
Jivanmukta — One who is liberated while still living in a body. Has realized “I am Brahman” and is free from suffering and the sense of doership, but continues to live until Prarabdha Karma exhausts itself. Described in the Bhagavad Gita (Chapter 5, Verse 19-20).
Jivanmukti — Liberation while living. The state of the Jivanmukta. Distinguished from Videhamukti (liberation at death). A unique teaching of Advaita Vedanta.
Jnana — Knowledge. Not intellectual knowledge, but direct, experiential realization of the Self as Brahman. The sole direct cause of liberation (Moksha). See also Para Vidya.
Jnana Kanda — The section of the Vedas dealing with knowledge (the Upanishads). Distinguished from Karma Kanda (the ritual section).
Jnana Yoga — The path of knowledge. One of the four main Yogas. Involves self-inquiry (“Who am I?”), discrimination (Viveka), and meditation on the Mahavakyas. The direct path for those with a contemplative temperament.
Jnanendriya — The five organs of perception: hearing (Shrotra), touch (Tvak), sight (Chakshu), taste (Rasana), smell (Ghrana).
K
Kaivalya — Absolute freedom, isolation. Another term for Moksha (liberation). The state of the Self alone, without any limitation or adjunct. The goal of Samkhya and Yoga as well as Vedanta.
Kala — Time. In Advaita, time is Mithya (relatively real) at the empirical level but not ultimately real. Brahman is beyond time. Krishna reveals Himself as Time (Kala) in the cosmic form (Bhagavad Gita Chapter 11, Verse 32).
Kalpa — A cosmic cycle. One day of Brahma, lasting 4.32 billion human years. At the end of each Kalpa, the universe is dissolved (Pralaya). There are countless Kalpas.
Kama — Desire, pleasure. One of the four goals of life (Purusharthas). Legitimate when within the bounds of Dharma. Excessive desire (Kama) is one of the three gates to hell (Bhagavad Gita Chapter 16, Verse 21). Also refers to the god of love.
Karana Sharira — The causal body. The subtlest of the three bodies. The state of deep sleep (Sushupti). The storehouse of karmic seeds (Sanchita Karma) and ignorance (Avidya). Also called Anandamaya Kosha.
Karma — Action and its consequence. The universal law of cause and effect. Every action produces a result that will manifest in this life or a future life. The engine of Samsara (rebirth). Not fatalism; present choices shape future karma.
Karma Kanda — The section of the Vedas dealing with rituals and actions (the Samhitas and Brahmanas). Distinguished from Jnana Kanda (the Upanishads, dealing with knowledge). Purva Mimamsa focuses on Karma Kanda.
Karma Yoga — The path of selfless action. Acting without attachment to results, offering all actions to the Divine. One of the four main Yogas. Taught extensively in the Bhagavad Gita (Chapters 2-5). The path for active temperaments.
Karmendriya — The five organs of action: speech (Vak), grasping (Pani), walking (Pada), excretion (Payu), procreation (Upastha).
Katha Upanishad — One of the principal Upanishads (Krishna Yajur Veda). Contains the story of Nachiketa and Yama (the god of death), the chariot analogy (body = chariot, senses = horses, mind = reins, intellect = charioteer, Self = passenger), and the teaching of the immortal Self.
Kaustubha — A precious gem worn by Vishnu. Symbolizes the Jiva (individual soul) resting on the Supreme.
Kena Upanishad — One of the principal Upanishads (Sama Veda). Asks “By whom (Kena) is the mind directed?” and reveals Brahman as the power behind the senses and mind. Contains the parable of the gods (Agni, Vayu, Indra) and the goddess Uma.
Kosha — Sheath, layer. The five sheaths (Pancha Kosha) that cover the Self: Annamaya (food sheath), Pranamaya (vital air sheath), Manomaya (mind sheath), Vijnanamaya (intellect sheath), Anandamaya (bliss sheath). A model for self-inquiry (Neti Neti).
Krama Mukti — Gradual liberation. Liberation attained after death, through the path of light (Devayana), culminating in Brahmaloka and eventual liberation. Contrasted with Sadyo Mukti (immediate liberation).
Krishna — The teacher of the Bhagavad Gita. An avatar of Vishnu. Represents Saguna Brahman (the personal God) and also the Supreme Self (Paramatma). His teachings synthesize Karma, Bhakti, and Jnana Yogas.
Kriya — Action, ritual. Also refers to the action phase of a practice. Kriya Yoga is a practical path of action and purification.
Kriyamana Karma — Another name for Agami Karma (future karma being created now).
Krodha — Anger. One of the three gates to hell (Bhagavad Gita Chapter 16, Verse 21), along with Kama (desire) and Lobha (greed). Anger clouds the intellect and leads to irrational action.
Kshatriya — The warrior-ruler caste. One of the four Varnas. Arjuna is a Kshatriya. His duty (Dharma) is to fight for justice.
Kshetra — Field. The body-mind complex, which is the field of experience. Distinguished from Kshetrajna (the knower of the field), which is the Self. Taught in the Bhagavad Gita, Chapter 13.
Kshetrajna — The knower of the field. The Self (Atman) who knows the body-mind (Kshetra). Identical with Brahman.
Kumbhaka — Breath retention. A component of Pranayama (breath control). Between inhalation (Puraka) and exhalation (Rechaka).
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Lila — Divine play, sport. The creation, preservation, and dissolution of the universe is described as Lila — a spontaneous, joyful, purposeless play of the Divine. Not out of need, but out of joy. A key concept in the Bhagavata Purana and later Vedanta.
Linga Sharira — The subtle body. Another name for Sukshma Sharira. The “mark” or “signature” body that continues from life to life.
Lobha — Greed. One of the three gates to hell (Bhagavad Gita Chapter 16, Verse 21), along with Kama (desire) and Krodha (anger). Excessive desire for wealth or possessions.
Loka — World, realm. The universe is divided into multiple Lokas (14 in number). The human realm (Manushya Loka) is considered the most favorable for liberation because it has a balance of pleasure and pain.
Lokasamgraha — The welfare of the world. The reason the wise continue to act even after liberation. They act not for personal gain but to maintain cosmic order and set an example. Taught in the Bhagavad Gita (Chapter 3, Verse 20-24).
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Madhva — The founder of Dvaita (dualism) Vedanta (13th century CE). Taught that Brahman (Vishnu) and the individual soul (Jiva) are eternally distinct. His commentary on the Brahma Sutras is called the Brahma Sutra Bhashya.
Mahat — The great principle. The first evolute from Prakriti in Samkhya philosophy. Cosmic intelligence. Also called Buddhi (intellect) at the cosmic level.
Mahavakya — Great saying. The four great declarations of the Upanishads that express the identity of Atman and Brahman: Prajnanam Brahma (Aitareya), Tat Tvam Asi (Chandogya), Aham Brahmasmi (Brihadaranyaka), Ayam Atma Brahma (Mandukya). Each is associated with one of the four Vedas.
Maitreyi — The wife of the sage Yajnavalkya. A learned woman who chose the knowledge of immortality over wealth. Subject of the famous Yajnavalkya-Maitreyi dialogue in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad.
Manana — Reflection. The second stage of the path to Self-knowledge. After hearing the teaching (Shravana), the seeker reflects on it to remove doubts through logic and reasoning (Anumana). Essential for converting intellectual understanding into conviction.
Manas — Mind (lower). The faculty of receiving sensory input, doubting, desiring, and imagining. One of the four functions of the Antahkarana. Restless by nature. The “reins” in the chariot analogy of the Katha Upanishad.
Mandukya Upanishad — One of the principal Upanishads (Atharva Veda). The shortest (12 verses). Analyzes the syllable OM (AUM) and the four states of consciousness (waking, dreaming, deep sleep, Turiya). Gaudapada’s Mandukya Karika is a commentary on this Upanishad.
Manomaya Kosha — The mind sheath. The third of the five sheaths (Pancha Kosha). Composed of the mind (Manas). The layer of thoughts, emotions, and sensory perceptions.
Manu — The progenitor of humanity. The first king and lawgiver. The Manusmriti (Laws of Manu) is a foundational text of Dharma.
Manusmriti — The Laws of Manu. A foundational text of Dharma (social and religious law). Secondary scripture (Smriti), not Shruti.
Maya — The divine power of Brahman by which the one appears as the many. Neither absolutely real nor absolutely unreal (Anirvacaniya). Has two powers: Avarana (veiling) and Vikshepa (projecting). The world is a product of Maya. When the cause is known (Brahman), the effect (Maya) is seen as Mithya.
Mimamsa — One of the six orthodox schools of Indian philosophy. Focuses on the ritual portion (Karma Kanda) of the Vedas. Purva Mimamsa (Jaimini) deals with action; Uttara Mimamsa (Vedanta) deals with knowledge.
Mithya — Relative reality, dependent reality. The world is Mithya — it exists, but depends on Brahman, changes, and is temporary. Neither Satya (absolutely real) nor Asat (absolutely unreal). The snake superimposed on the rope is Mithya.
Moksha — Liberation. Freedom from the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (Samsara). The highest goal of human life (Purushartha). Attained through Self-knowledge (Jnana). Not a place, but the recognition of one’s true nature as Brahman.
Mumukshutva — Intense desire for liberation. The fourth of the four qualifications (Sadhana Chatushtaya). Without this burning desire, the seeker will not have the urgency to attain Self-knowledge. The most important qualification.
Mundaka Upanishad — One of the principal Upanishads (Atharva Veda). Distinguishes between higher knowledge (Para Vidya) and lower knowledge (Apara Vidya). Contains the spider-web analogy and the two birds analogy (the individual self and the Supreme Self). The famous verse “Satyameva Jayate” (Truth alone triumphs) is from this Upanishad.
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Nachiketa — The young protagonist of the Katha Upanishad. Confronts Yama (the god of death) and refuses all temptations (wealth, power, pleasure) to learn the secret of the immortal Self. A model of the sincere seeker.
Nada — Sound. The primal sound. Nada Brahman is sound as the absolute. The basis of Nada Yoga (yoga of sound). OM is the primordial Nada.
Nadi — Energy channel in the subtle body. Thousands of Nadis, with three main ones: Ida (left, lunar), Pingala (right, solar), and Sushumna (central, spiritual). The path for Kundalini energy.
Naivedya — Food offered to the deity. Becomes Prasad (blessed food) after offering.
Nama-Rupa — Name and form. The phenomenal world of names and forms. Mithya — appearances superimposed on Brahman.
Nasadiya Sukta — The Creation Hymn of the Rig Veda (10.129). A profound philosophical hymn that questions whether anyone can know the origin of the universe. Concludes: “The one who looks down on this creation from the highest heaven — only He knows, or perhaps He does not know.”
Neti Neti — “Not this, not this.” The method of negation used in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad to describe Brahman by negating all that it is not. Also a practical method of self-inquiry: systematically negate identification with body, senses, mind, intellect, and ego. What remains is the Self.
Nididhyasana — Deep meditation. The third stage of the path to Self-knowledge. After hearing (Shravana) and reflecting (Manana), the seeker meditates on the Mahavakya until it becomes direct realization. Not meditation on an object, but abiding as the Self.
Nimitta — Efficient cause. The agent or instrument that brings about an effect. In creation, Brahman is both the material cause (Upadana) and the efficient cause (Nimitta).
Nirbija Samadhi — Seedless Samadhi. A state of deep meditation without any seed (mental object). Asamprajnata Samadhi. The highest state in Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras.
Nirguna Brahman — Brahman without attributes, qualities, or form. The absolute, transcendent aspect of ultimate reality. Beyond all description (Neti Neti). Distinguished from Saguna Brahman (Brahman with attributes). The highest truth in Advaita Vedanta.
Nirvana — Extinction, liberation. More commonly used in Buddhism. In Hinduism, synonymous with Moksha. The extinguishing of the fires of desire, hatred, and ignorance.
Nirvikalpa Samadhi — A state of deep meditation where the mind is completely still, without any mental object or conceptualization. The meditator loses awareness of the body and world. A temporary state, not the final goal of Vedanta (which is Sahaja Samadhi).
Nishkama Karma — Action without desire. Action performed without attachment to the results. The essence of Karma Yoga. Taught in the Bhagavad Gita (Chapter 2, Verse 47).
Nivritti — Withdrawal, turning inward. The path of renunciation and turning away from sense objects. Contrasted with Pravritti (engagement with the world). Nivritti is the path to liberation.
Niyama — Observances. The second limb of Patanjali’s Ashtanga Yoga. The five Niyamas are: Shaucha (purity), Santosha (contentment), Tapas (austerity), Svadhyaya (self-study), Ishvara Pranidhana (surrender to the Lord).
Nyaya — Logic, reasoning. One of the six orthodox schools of Indian philosophy. Focuses on epistemology and logic. Also means justice or proper judgment.
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OM (AUM) — The primordial sacred syllable. Represents Brahman. Analyzed in the Mandukya Upanishad as four parts: A (waking, Vaishvanara), U (dreaming, Taijasa), M (deep sleep, Prajna), and the silence after M (Turiya). The most sacred mantra in Hinduism. Chanted at the beginning and end of prayers, meditations, and rituals.
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Pada — Foot, quarter, section. The Brahma Sutras are divided into four chapters (Adhyayas), each with four sections (Padas). Also refers to a word or grammatical unit.
Padmapada — One of the four principal disciples of Adi Shankara. Author of the Panchapadika, a commentary on Shankara’s Brahma Sutra Bhashya. Appointed as the first head of Govardhana Matha in Puri.
Pancha Kosha — The five sheaths covering the Self: Annamaya (food sheath), Pranamaya (vital air sheath), Manomaya (mind sheath), Vijnanamaya (intellect sheath), Anandamaya (bliss sheath). A model for self-inquiry from the Taittiriya Upanishad.
Pancha Mahabhutas — The five great elements: space (Akasha), air (Vayu), fire (Agni), water (Apas), earth (Prithvi). The building blocks of the gross physical universe.
Panchagni Vidya — The doctrine of the five fires. A teaching in the Chandogya and Brihadaranyaka Upanishads describing the path of the soul after death and the process of rebirth.
Panchikarana — The process of quintuplication. The process by which the five subtle elements combine to form the gross elements. Described in the Taittiriya Upanishad and commented upon by Shankara.
Para Brahman — The supreme Brahman. Nirguna Brahman. The absolute, transcendent reality.
Para Vidya — Higher knowledge. Knowledge of Brahman, the imperishable. Leads to liberation. Distinguished from Apara Vidya (lower knowledge) in the Mundaka Upanishad.
Paramahamsa — The highest order of renunciates (Sannyasis). A liberated sage who has transcended all social conventions. The term means “supreme swan,” symbolizing the ability to discriminate the real from the unreal.
Paramartha — The highest truth, absolute reality. The goal of Vedanta. Distinguished from Vyavahara (empirical truth).
Paramarthika Satta — Absolute reality. The highest level of reality, where only Brahman exists. Distinguished from Vyavaharika Satta (empirical reality) and Pratibhasika Satta (apparent reality).
Paramatma — The Supreme Self. Brahman as the indwelling witness and controller within all beings. Also called Antaryamin (Inner Controller). In the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna identifies Himself as the Paramatma.
Patanjali — The author of the Yoga Sutras, the foundational text of the Yoga school. Lived around 400-200 BCE (traditional dating). Not a Vedantic text per se, but integrated into Vedanta as a means of mind purification.
Pinda — The physical body. Also a ball of rice offered to ancestors in Shraddha rituals.
Pitriyana — The path of darkness (also called Dhumadi Marga). The path taken by the soul after death that leads to rebirth (return). Contrasted with Devayana (the path of light). Described in the Chandogya and Brihadaranyaka Upanishads.
Pradhana — The primordial, unmanifest state of Prakriti before manifestation. Also called Avyakta. The state where the three Gunas are in perfect equilibrium.
Prajna — Consciousness, wisdom. Also the name for the deep sleep state (Prajna) in the Mandukya Upanishad. The third quarter of OM (M).
Prajnanam Brahma — “Consciousness is Brahman.” One of the four Mahavakyas from the Aitareya Upanishad (3.3.7). Declares that pure consciousness is the ultimate reality.
Prakriti — Nature, the material principle. The creative, dynamic power that manifests as the universe. Composed of the three Gunas (Sattva, Rajas, Tamas). Distinguished from Purusha (consciousness). In Samkhya, Prakriti is independent; in Advaita, it is the power (Maya) of Brahman.
Pralaya — Dissolution. The end of a cosmic cycle when the universe returns to its unmanifest state. Not total annihilation, but a period of rest before the next creation.
Pramana — Means of valid knowledge. Vedanta accepts three primary Pramanas: Pratyaksha (perception), Anumana (inference), and Shabda (scriptural testimony). Some schools accept additional Pramanas (Upamana, Arthapatti, Anupalabdhi).
Pramata — The knower, subject. The conscious being who knows. In Advaita, the Pramata is ultimately identical with the known (Prameya) and the means of knowledge (Pramana) in non-dual realization.
Prameya — The object of knowledge, the known.
Prana — Vital energy, life-force. Also one of the five vital energies (Pranas): Prana (inhalation, forward-moving), Apana (exhalation/elimination, downward-moving), Vyana (circulation, diffused), Udana (upward movement), Samana (digestion, balancing). The life-force that animates the body.
Pranamaya Kosha — The vital air sheath. The second of the five sheaths (Pancha Kosha). Made of the five Pranas. The layer of life-energy.
Pranayama — Breath control. The fourth limb of Patanjali’s Ashtanga Yoga. Regulation of inhalation (Puraka), exhalation (Rechaka), and retention (Kumbhaka). Calms the mind and prepares it for meditation.
Prapatti — Total surrender. A key concept in Sri Vaishnavism (Ramanuja’s tradition). Surrender to the Lord (Ishvara) as the sole means of liberation. Considered the easiest path.
Prarabdha Karma — The portion of Sanchita Karma that is already bearing fruit in the present life. Cannot be changed; must be experienced. The body itself is the result of Prarabdha Karma. Even the Jivanmukta (liberated sage) continues to experience Prarabdha until death.
Prasada — Grace, blessing. Also the blessed food offered to a deity (Naivedya) and then distributed to devotees.
Prasthana Trayi — The three foundational texts of Vedanta: the Upanishads (Shruti Prasthana), the Bhagavad Gita (Smriti Prasthana), and the Brahma Sutras (Nyaya Prasthana). All schools of Vedanta base their teachings on these three texts.
Pratibhasika Satta — Apparent reality. The lowest level of reality. Illusions, hallucinations, dreams (after waking). Also called Asat (absolutely unreal) in the sense of not having even empirical validity.
Pratibimba Vada — The doctrine of reflection. The Advaita view that the Jiva is a reflection (Pratibimba) of Brahman in the mind (Antahkarana). Contrasted with Avachheda Vada (doctrine of limitation).
Pratyaksha — Direct perception. One of the three means of valid knowledge (Pramanas). Knowledge gained through the senses. The most basic Pramana.
Pratyahara — Withdrawal of the senses. The fifth limb of Patanjali’s Ashtanga Yoga. Turning the senses inward, away from external objects. A preparation for concentration (Dharana) and meditation (Dhyana).
Pravritti — Activity, engagement with the world. The natural tendency of the mind to move outward toward sense objects. The cause of Samsara. Contrasted with Nivritti (withdrawal, turning inward).
Prayojana — The goal, purpose. In Vedantic theology, the third of three stages: the scripture (Pramana), the means (Abhidheya), and the goal (Prayojana). The goal is Moksha (liberation).
Purana — Ancient texts. There are 18 major Puranas. Contain mythology, cosmology, genealogy, and devotional teachings. Secondary scripture (Smriti).
Purusha — Consciousness, spirit. In Samkhya philosophy, Purusha is the conscious principle, inactive, eternal, and many. Distinguished from Prakriti (matter). In the Bhagavad Gita, the term is also used for the Supreme Self (Paramatma). In the Purusha Sukta, the cosmic being from whom the universe is created.
Purusha Sukta — A hymn in the Rig Veda (10.90) describing the cosmic Purusha whose sacrifice created the universe. A foundational text for understanding creation and the Varna system.
Purushartha — The four goals of human life: Dharma (righteousness), Artha (wealth), Kama (pleasure), and Moksha (liberation). A balanced life includes all four, with Dharma as the foundation and Moksha as the highest.
Purva Mimamsa — See Mimamsa. The earlier (Purva) part of Mimamsa, focusing on the ritual portion of the Vedas. Distinguished from Uttara Mimamsa (Vedanta).
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Rajas — The Guna of activity, passion, energy. Characterized by restlessness, desire, attachment, and agitation. One of the three Gunas of Prakriti. Can lead to action but also to bondage.
Rama — An avatar of Vishnu. The hero of the Ramayana. Represents the ideal man (Maryada Purushottama). His life exemplifies Dharma.
Ramana Maharshi — A modern Advaita sage (1879-1950). Taught the direct path of self-inquiry (“Who am I?”). Author of “Who Am I?” and “Forty Verses on Reality.” His teaching emphasizes that the Self is always present; only the ego needs to be investigated.
Ramanuja — The founder of Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism) Vedanta (11th-12th century CE). Taught that Brahman has attributes (Saguna) and that souls are modes (Prakaras) of Brahman. His commentary on the Brahma Sutras is called the Sri Bhashya.
Ramayana — The epic poem by Valmiki. Tells the story of Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana. Teaches Dharma through narrative.
Rishi — A seer of the Vedas. One who “sees” (not composes) the Vedic mantras in deep meditation. The seven great Rishis (Saptarishis) are legendary sages.
Rta — Cosmic order. The Vedic principle of order that governs the universe. The foundation of Dharma and Satya. The gods themselves are upholders of Rta, not its creators.
Rudra — A Vedic deity, later identified with Shiva. The god of storms and destruction. Represents the destructive aspect of the Divine, which is also creative.
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Sadashiva — A form of Shiva representing the eternal, benevolent aspect of the Divine. The “eternally auspicious.”
Sadhaka — A spiritual seeker who practices Sadhana (spiritual discipline). One who has taken up the path with dedication.
Sadhana — Spiritual practice. Any practice that leads to Self-realization. Includes Karma Yoga, Bhakti Yoga, Jnana Yoga, and Raja Yoga. Sadhana purifies the mind and prepares it for knowledge.
Sadhana Chatushtaya — The fourfold qualification for a seeker of Vedanta: Viveka (discrimination between real and unreal), Vairagya (dispassion toward sense objects), Shatsampatti (six virtues: Sama, Dama, Uparati, Titiksha, Shraddha, Samadhana), and Mumukshutva (intense desire for liberation). Essential for Adhikara (qualification).
Sadyo Mukti — Immediate liberation. Liberation attained in this very life, without waiting for death. Contrasted with Krama Mukti (gradual liberation). The goal of the Direct Path.
Saguna Brahman — Brahman with attributes, qualities, and form. The personal God (Ishvara). The object of devotion (Bhakti). Distinguished from Nirguna Brahman (Brahman without attributes). Saguna Brahman is Brahman as seen through Maya.
Sahaja Samadhi — Natural, effortless, unbroken state of Self-realization. The final stage of spiritual awakening. Distinguished from Nirvikalpa Samadhi (temporary absorption). The Jivanmukta abides in Sahaja Samadhi even while acting in the world.
Sakshi — Witness. The Self (Atman) as the silent witness of all experiences. Not affected by what it witnesses. The Sakshi is the true “I.”
Sama — Calmness, tranquility. One of the six virtues (Shatsampatti) required for Vedantic study. Calmness of mind, free from agitation.
Samadhana — Concentration, one-pointedness. One of the six virtues (Shatsampatti). The ability to focus the mind on a single point. Essential for meditation.
Samadhi — Deep meditation, absorption. The eighth and final limb of Patanjali’s Ashtanga Yoga. A state of complete stillness where the mind becomes one with the object of meditation. See also Nirvikalpa Samadhi, Sahaja Samadhi.
Samana — One of the five vital energies (Pranas). Responsible for digestion and assimilation. The balancing energy.
Samkhya — One of the six orthodox schools of Indian philosophy. Dualistic (Purusha and Prakriti). Influenced the Bhagavad Gita and Vedanta. The oldest school of Indian philosophy (attributed to Kapila).
Samprajnata Samadhi — A state of deep meditation with a mental object (with seed, Sabija). Distinguished from Asamprajnata Samadhi (without object).
Samsara — The cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. The conditioned existence of the Jiva. Driven by karma and desire. The goal of Vedanta is liberation (Moksha) from Samsara. Often described as a wheel (Samsara Chakra).
Samskara — Latent impression. The trace left in the mind by past actions and experiences. Samskaras determine tendencies, habits, and future behavior. Stored in Chitta. Can be positive or negative. The goal of spiritual practice is to create positive Samskaras and ultimately transcend all Samskaras.
Samvit — Consciousness. Another term for Chit.
Samyama — The combined practice of Dharana (concentration), Dhyana (meditation), and Samadhi (absorption). A term from Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras. The practice that leads to direct perception of the truth.
Sanatana Dharma — “The eternal law.” A name for Hinduism. Refers to the timeless, universal principles of righteousness.
Sanchita Karma — The accumulated karma from all past lives. The storehouse of unripe karmic seeds. When a portion of Sanchita Karma begins to bear fruit, it becomes Prarabdha Karma. Destroyed by Self-knowledge.
Sannyasa — Renunciation. The fourth stage of life (Ashrama). Complete renunciation of worldly attachments and possessions. A Sannyasi (monk) dedicates life entirely to Self-realization.
Sannyasi — A renunciate who has taken Sannyasa. A monk. Often identified by orange or ochre robes. Not required for liberation, but a valid path.
Sanskrit — The classical language of India. The language of the Vedas, Upanishads, Gita, and Brahma Sutras. Literally “refined” or “perfected.”
Santosha — Contentment. One of the five Niyamas (observances) in Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras. Being content with what one has, without craving for more.
Sapta Rishis — The seven great sages. Legendary seers who received the Vedas. Their names vary in different texts.
Sarvapriyananda — Swami Sarvapriyananda is a contemporary Advaita teacher and head of the Vedanta Society of New York. Known for clear, accessible teachings on the Upanishads and Advaita Vedanta.
Sat — Existence, being. The first aspect of Brahman (Sat-Chit-Ananda). That which is eternal, unchanging, and independent. The only reality.
Sat-Chit-Ananda — The nature of Brahman: Existence-Consciousness-Bliss. Not three separate qualities, but three aspects of one reality. The goal of Vedanta is to realize one’s own nature as Sat-Chit-Ananda.
Satkaryavada — The doctrine that the effect pre-exists in the cause. The Vedantic view that the world (effect) pre-exists in Brahman (cause). The world is a manifestation, not a creation from nothing. Contrasted with Asatkaryavada (the effect does not pre-exist).
Sattva — The Guna of harmony, purity, light. Characterized by clarity, peace, wisdom, and balance. One of the three Gunas of Prakriti. The quality to be cultivated for spiritual progress.
Satya — Truth, reality. What is eternal and unchanging (Brahman). Also truthfulness in speech and action. One of the Yamas (ethical restraints). The highest Dharma.
Shaiva — A follower of Shiva. The Shaiva tradition is one of the major branches of Hinduism.
Shaivite — Relating to Shiva or his worship.
Shakta — A follower of the Goddess (Devi). The Shakta tradition worships the Divine Mother.
Shakti — Power, energy. The divine creative power. The feminine aspect of the Divine. Often identified with Maya (the power of Brahman). Worshipped as the Goddess (Devi).
Shaktipata — Descent of grace. The transmission of spiritual energy from the Guru to the disciple. Essential for final Self-realization in some traditions (especially Kashmir Shaivism and certain Vedantic lineages).
Shankara (Adi) — The greatest teacher of Advaita Vedanta (c. 8th century CE). Wrote commentaries (Bhashyas) on the Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, and Brahma Sutras. Established the four monastic centers (Mathas) in Sringeri, Dwaraka, Puri, and Badrinath. Systematized Advaita and defeated rival schools in debate.
Sharira — Body. Three bodies: Gross (Sthula Sharira), Subtle (Sukshma Sharira), and Causal (Karana Sharira). The Self is not the body.
Shastra — Scripture. Sacred text. The Vedas, Upanishads, Gita, Brahma Sutras, and other authoritative texts. Shastra is one of the Pramanas (means of valid knowledge).
Shatsampatti — The six virtues required for Vedantic study: Sama (calmness), Dama (self-control), Uparati (withdrawal from sense objects), Titiksha (endurance), Shraddha (faith), Samadhana (concentration). Part of the fourfold qualification (Sadhana Chatushtaya).
Shaucha — Purity, cleanliness. One of the five Niyamas (observances) in Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras. External (bodily) and internal (mental) purity.
Shiva — A form of Saguna Brahman. The destroyer and transformer in the Hindu trinity (Brahma the creator, Vishnu the preserver, Shiva the destroyer). Also worshipped as the supreme Lord in Shaivism.
Shraddha — Faith, trust. One of the six virtues (Shatsampatti). Not blind faith, but trust in the scriptures, the Guru, and the path. Essential for spiritual progress.
Shravana — Hearing. The first stage of the path to Self-knowledge. Hearing the teaching from a qualified teacher (Guru). The student listens with attention and humility.
Shruti — “That which is heard.” The Vedas and Upanishads, considered divinely revealed and eternal. The highest authority in Vedanta. Distinguished from Smriti (“that which is remembered”), which is secondary.
Shuddha — Pure. Unmixed, uncontaminated. Shuddha Brahman is Nirguna Brahman.
Shuddhadvaita — “Pure non-dualism.” The school of Vedanta founded by Vallabha. Teaches that the world is a real manifestation of Brahman, not an illusion (Maya).
Shukla Yajur Veda — One of the two recensions of the Yajur Veda (the other is Krishna Yajur Veda). Contains the Isha Upanishad and the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad.
Shvetaketu — The young student in the Chandogya Upanishad. Son of Uddalaka Aruni. To whom the Mahavakya “Tat Tvam Asi” is taught.
Shvetashvatara Upanishad — One of the principal Upanishads (Krishna Yajur Veda). Contains teachings on the nature of Brahman, the soul, and the path of devotion (Bhakti). Influential in Shaivism.
Siddha — A perfected being. One who has attained spiritual perfection (Siddhi). Often refers to accomplished yogis.
Siddhi — Perfection, spiritual power. Powers that may arise through spiritual practice (e.g., clairvoyance, levitation, invisibility). In Advaita, Siddhis are considered distractions from the goal of Self-realization.
Smriti — “That which is remembered.” Secondary scripture, based on Shruti. Includes the Bhagavad Gita, Mahabharata, Ramayana, Puranas, and Dharma Shastras. Authoritative but not eternal.
So’ham — “I am That.” A mantra derived from the Hamsa (swan). The inhalation is “So” and the exhalation is “Ham.” Represents the identity of the individual self with Brahman.
Srishti-Drishti Vada — The doctrine of sequential creation and perception. The view that the world is created first, then perceived. Contrasted with Drishti-Srishti Vada.
Sthita Prajna — One of steady wisdom. A person established in Self-knowledge. Described in the Bhagavad Gita (Chapter 2, Verses 55-72). A Jivanmukta. Characterized by equanimity, freedom from desire, and inner peace.
Sthula Sharira — The gross physical body. Made of the five great elements (Pancha Mahabhutas). Subject to birth, change, and death. The first of the three bodies.
Sukshma Sharira — The subtle body. Composed of the Antahkarana (mind, intellect, ego, memory), the five Jnanendriyas (sense organs), the five Karmendriyas (organs of action), and the five Pranas (vital energies). Continues after death and carries karma to the next birth. Also called Linga Sharira.
Sushupti — Deep sleep. One of the three states of consciousness. Correlated with the “M” of OM in the Mandukya Upanishad. A state of blissful ignorance (Anandamaya Kosha). Not liberation, because the seed of ignorance remains.
Sutra — “Thread.” An aphorism. The Brahma Sutras are composed of approximately 555 Sutras. Sutras are extremely concise, designed as memory aids for oral transmission. A Sutra must be economical, unambiguous, essential, and universally applicable.
Svadharma — One’s own duty. The duty appropriate to one’s nature, stage of life (Ashrama), and social role (Varna). The Bhagavad Gita (Chapter 3, Verse 35) teaches that performing one’s own Svadharma, even imperfectly, is better than performing another’s duty perfectly.
Svadhyaya — Self-study. Study of scriptures. One of the Niyamas (observances) in Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras. Essential for spiritual growth.
Svapna — The dreaming state. One of the three states of consciousness. Correlated with the “U” of OM in the Mandukya Upanishad. The state where the Jiva experiences internal objects (dream images).
Svarupa — One’s own form, true nature. The Self (Atman) as it really is, not as it appears under ignorance. The goal of Vedanta is to realize one’s Svarupa.
Svarupa Lakshana — The essential definition. The definition of a thing by its own nature, not by accidental qualities. For Brahman, the Svarupa Lakshana is Sat-Chit-Ananda. Contrasted with Tatastha Lakshana (accidental definition).
T
Taijasa — The name for the dreaming state in the Mandukya Upanishad. Correlated with the “U” of OM. “The luminous one.”
Taittiriya Upanishad — One of the principal Upanishads (Krishna Yajur Veda). Contains the teaching of the five sheaths (Pancha Kosha) and the declaration “Satyam Jnanam Anantam Brahma” (Truth, Knowledge, Infinity is Brahman). Also contains the Bhrigu Valli.
Tamas — The Guna of inertia, darkness, ignorance. Characterized by dullness, sleep, delusion, and lethargy. One of the three Gunas of Prakriti. The quality to be reduced through spiritual practice.
Tantra — A tradition of scriptures and practices focusing on the worship of the Goddess (Shakti). Includes rituals, mantras, yantras, and meditation techniques. Not a separate philosophy but a methodology.
Tapas — Austerity, spiritual discipline. One of the Niyamas (observances) in Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras. Self-discipline, including fasting, celibacy, silence (Mauna), and endurance of opposites (heat and cold, etc.).
Tatastha Lakshana — The accidental definition. The definition of a thing by its accidental qualities, not by its essential nature. For Brahman, the Tatastha Lakshana is “the cause of the universe.” Contrasted with Svarupa Lakshana (essential definition).
Tat Tvam Asi — “That you are.” One of the four Mahavakyas from the Chandogya Upanishad (6.8.7). The direct declaration that the individual self (Tvam) is identical with Brahman (Tat). Repeated nine times with analogies.
Titiksha — Endurance, forbearance. One of the six virtues (Shatsampatti). The ability to endure the pairs of opposites (heat and cold, pleasure and pain) without disturbance. Essential for meditation.
Totakacharya — One of the four principal disciples of Adi Shankara. Appointed as the first head of Jyotir Matha in Badrinath. Author of the Totakashtakam, a hymn of eight verses praising Shankara.
Trishna — Thirst, craving. Intense desire for sense objects. The root of suffering (Dukha). The Bhagavad Gita teaches that the wise person is free from Trishna.
Turiya — The “fourth.” Not a state of consciousness, but the ground of all three states (waking, dreaming, deep sleep). Pure, non-dual, self-luminous consciousness. The Self (Atman). Correlated with the silence after OM in the Mandukya Upanishad.
U
Ubhaya Bharati — The wife of Mandana Mishra. A great scholar in her own right. Served as the judge in the debate between Shankara and Mandana Mishra. According to legend, she challenged Shankara’s knowledge of the Kama Shastras.
Udana — One of the five vital energies (Pranas). Responsible for upward-moving functions: swallowing, the upward movement of consciousness at death, and the ascent of Kundalini.
Uddalaka Aruni — The sage in the Chandogya Upanishad who teaches his son Shvetaketu the great saying “Tat Tvam Asi” (That you are). A model of the spiritual teacher.
Upadana Karana — The material cause. The substance from which an effect is made. Clay is the Upadana Karana of a pot. Brahman is the Upadana Karana of the universe.
Upadhi — Limiting adjunct. A condition or limitation superimposed on a reality, making it appear limited. The body-mind is an Upadhi on Brahman, making it appear as the individual Jiva. The pot is an Upadhi on space.
Upanishad — The philosophical section of the Vedas. The end of the Vedas (Vedanta). The foundation of Vedanta. Over 200 Upanishads; 12-13 principal (Mukhya). Teach the identity of Atman and Brahman. Shruti (revealed scripture).
Upasana — Meditation, worship. Contemplation on a form of Saguna Brahman (a deity). Prepares the mind for Jnana (Self-knowledge). Includes Japa (mantra repetition) and visualization.
Upaveda — “Secondary Veda.” Four Upavedas: Ayurveda (medicine, attached to Rig Veda), Dhanurveda (archery/warfare, attached to Yajur Veda), Gandharvaveda (music/dance, attached to Sama Veda), Sthapatyaveda (architecture, attached to Atharva Veda).
Uparati — Withdrawal from sense objects. One of the six virtues (Shatsampatti). The ability to withdraw the mind from external distractions. Also called Pratyahara in Yoga.
V
Vairagya — Dispassion, detachment. Freedom from attachment to sense objects and worldly pleasures. One of the two essential components of meditation (the other being Abhyasa). A required qualification for Vedantic study.
Vaishnava — A follower of Vishnu. The Vaishnava tradition is one of the major branches of Hinduism.
Vaishvanara — The name for the waking state in the Mandukya Upanishad. Correlated with the “A” of OM. “The one who dwells in all humans.”
Vaisheshika — One of the six orthodox schools of Indian philosophy. Focuses on metaphysics and atomism. Founded by Kanada. Often paired with Nyaya.
Vanaprastha — The forest-dweller stage. The third stage of life (Ashrama). Gradual renunciation, withdrawal from household duties, and focus on spiritual practice. Precedes Sannyasa.
Varna — Color, class. The four social classes in traditional Hindu society: Brahmins (priests/teachers), Kshatriyas (warriors/rulers), Vaishyas (merchants/farmers), Shudras (laborers/service providers). Not to be confused with Jati (caste).
Vasana — Tendency, latent desire. Subtle impressions in the mind that create tendencies to act in certain ways. Similar to Samskara. Vasanas drive the cycle of rebirth.
Vayu — Air, wind. One of the five elements (Pancha Mahabhutas). Also the deity of wind. The quality of Vayu is touch (Sparsha).
Vedanga — “Limb of the Vedas.” Six auxiliary disciplines for understanding the Vedas: Shiksha (phonetics), Chandas (meter), Vyakarana (grammar), Nirukta (etymology), Jyotisha (astronomy), Kalpa (ritual protocol).
Vedanta — “The end of the Vedas.” The philosophical system based on the Upanishads. The most influential school of Hindu philosophy. Also refers to the Upanishads themselves. The goal of Vedanta is to know Brahman and attain Moksha.
Vedas — The oldest and most authoritative scriptures of Hinduism. Four Vedas: Rig, Yajur, Sama, Atharva. Each divided into Samhitas (hymns), Brahmanas (rituals), Aranyakas (forest texts), and Upanishads (philosophy). Considered Shruti (revealed).
Videhamukti — Liberation at death. The state of the Jivanmukta after death. Distinguished from Jivanmukti (liberation while living).
Vidya — Knowledge, especially Self-knowledge. The opposite of Avidya (ignorance). The direct cause of liberation.
Vijnana — Direct, experiential knowledge. Differentiated from Jnana (intellectual knowledge) in some contexts. The realization of Brahman. Vijnana is the goal of the Kena Upanishad.
Vijnanamaya Kosha — The intellect sheath. The fourth of the five sheaths (Pancha Kosha). Composed of the intellect (Buddhi) and ego (Ahamkara). Closer to the Self than the mind sheath. Often mistaken for the Self.
Vikshepa — The projecting power of Maya. Once Brahman is veiled (Avarana), Vikshepa projects the universe of names and forms. One of the two powers of Maya (with Avarana).
Viparyaya — Error, misconception. In Yoga philosophy, one of the five modifications (Vrittis) of the mind. Mistaking the unreal for the real.
Vishishtadvaita — “Qualified non-dualism.” The school of Vedanta founded by Ramanuja (11th-12th century CE). Teaches that Brahman has attributes (Saguna) and that individual souls are modes (Prakaras) of Brahman. The world is real, not illusory.
Vishnu — A form of Saguna Brahman. The preserver in the Hindu trinity (Brahma the creator, Vishnu the preserver, Shiva the destroyer). Worshipped as the supreme Lord in Vaishnavism.
Viveka — Discrimination. The ability to distinguish between the real (Self) and the unreal (body, mind, world). The first of the four qualifications (Sadhana Chatushtaya). The foundation of all spiritual practice.
Vivekachudamani — “The Crest-Jewel of Discrimination.” A text attributed to Adi Shankara. A systematic exposition of Advaita Vedanta in verse form. Highly recommended for beginners. Contains 580 verses.
Vritti — Modification, mental wave. The fluctuations of the mind. The goal of Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras is to still the Vrittis (Chitta Vritti Nirodhah). In Vedanta, Vrittis are the objects of the witness (Sakshi).
Vyana — One of the five vital energies (Pranas). Responsible for circulation throughout the body.
Vyasa — The compiler of the Vedas and author of the Mahabharata (including the Bhagavad Gita) and the Brahma Sutras. Identified with Badarayana. Celebrated on Guru Purnima as the Adi Guru (original teacher).
Vyavaharika Satta — Empirical reality. The level of reality of the waking world. Mithya (relatively real). Distinguished from Paramarthika (absolute reality) and Pratibhasika (apparent reality).
Y
Yajna — Sacrifice, offering. In the Vedas, literal fire sacrifices (Homa). In the Bhagavad Gita, all actions can be offered as Yajna to the Divine. The highest Yajna is the sacrifice of the ego.
Yajnavalkya — A great sage of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. Teacher of the Neti Neti (not this, not this) teaching and the dialogue with his wife Maitreyi. One of the greatest sages of the Upanishadic period.
Yajur Veda — One of the four Vedas. Focuses on the prose formulas for rituals. Two recensions: Shukla (white) and Krishna (black).
Yama — The god of death in the Katha Upanishad. Also the first limb of Patanjali’s Ashtanga Yoga: the five ethical restraints (Ahimsa, Satya, Asteya, Brahmacharya, Aparigraha). Not to be confused with the deity.
Yantra — A geometric diagram used for meditation and worship. Represents a deity or cosmic principle. Often used in Tantric practice.
Yoga — Union. The path of spiritual practice. Also one of the six orthodox schools of Indian philosophy (Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras). In the Bhagavad Gita, Yoga is skill in action (Karma Yoga), devotion (Bhakti Yoga), and knowledge (Jnana Yoga). The goal of Yoga is to still the mind and realize the Self.
Yoga Sutras — The foundational text of the Yoga school, attributed to Patanjali. Defines Yoga as the stilling of the modifications of the mind (Chitta Vritti Nirodhah). 196 aphorisms divided into four chapters (Padas).
Yogachara — A school of Buddhism that emphasizes meditation and the doctrine of “mind-only” (Vijnaptimatra). Critiqued by Gaudapada and Shankara.
Yogi — One who practices Yoga. A spiritual practitioner. Not necessarily an ascetic; can be a householder.
Z
No terms. The Sanskrit language has no native ‘Z’ sound.
Conclusion: The Vocabulary of Liberation
This comprehensive list covers the major concepts of Hindu philosophy, with particular emphasis on Advaita Vedanta. These terms are not mere abstractions. They are pointers to direct experience. Use this glossary as a reference as you study the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, and the Brahma Sutras.
As the Bhagavad Gita (Chapter 2, Verse 40) declares:
“In this path, no effort is ever lost, and no obstacle prevails. Even a little practice of this discipline protects one from great fear.”
May this glossary support your study and practice, and lead you to the direct realization of the Self.
Om Shanti Shanti Shanti.
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