Lakṣaṇā: Indirect Meaning in Vedānta

Short Answer

Lakṣaṇā is the indirect or figurative meaning of a word, used when the literal meaning (vācyārtha) is either impossible or insufficient to convey the intended sense. In Advaita Vedanta, lakṣaṇā is essential for understanding Mahavakyas like “Tat tvam asi” (That thou art). The literal reading suggests identity between two different entities—”That” (Brahman) and “Thou” (the individual self). This seems contradictory. Lakṣaṇā resolves the contradiction by indicating that the identity is not of the empirical entities but of the pure consciousness underlying both. The word “tvam” (thou) does not mean the body, mind, or ego—it means the pure Self (Ātman) that is the witness of these. The word “tat” (that) does not mean the creator God—it means pure consciousness (Brahman). Lakṣaṇā is the method by which scripture points beyond literal meaning to the non-dual truth.

In one line: Lakṣaṇā is indirect meaning—used when literal meaning fails, it points beyond words to the non-dual truth.

Key points:

• Lakṣaṇā is the indirect or figurative meaning of a word—used when literal meaning (vācyārtha) is impossible or insufficient
• Essential for understanding Mahavakyas like “Tat tvam asi” (That thou art)
• Literal meaning seems contradictory—two different entities cannot be identical
• Lakṣaṇā resolves by indicating identity not of empirical entities but of pure consciousness underlying both
• “Tvam” (thou) means the pure Self (Ātman), not the body-mind
• “Tat” (that) means pure consciousness (Brahman), not the creator God
• Three types: jahallakṣaṇā (abandoning literal), ajahallakṣaṇā (retaining literal), jahad-ajahallakṣaṇā (both)

For a complete understanding of lakṣaṇā in Advaita, Dr. Surabhi Solanki’s Awakening Through Vedanta explains the Mahavakyas, while her Brahma Sutra Bhāṣya: A Modern Retelling demonstrates how lakṣaṇā resolves scriptural contradictions.

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Part 1: The Three Powers of Words (Śakti)

Abhidhā – Literal Meaning

Every word has a primary, literal meaning called abhidhā or vācyārtha. This is the direct meaning based on convention.

Term	Meaning
Abhidhā	The literal, direct meaning of a word
Vācyārtha	The expressed meaning
Example	“Cow” directly means the animal with four legs, a tail, etc.

“When you say ‘cow,’ the literal meaning is the animal. This is abhidhā. It works when the literal meaning is possible and intended.”

Lakṣaṇā – Indirect Meaning

Lakṣaṇā is the indirect or figurative meaning. It is used when the literal meaning is either impossible or insufficient.

Term	Meaning
Lakṣaṇā	The indirect, figurative, or indicated meaning
Lakṣyārtha	The indicated meaning
Example	“The village is on the Ganges” – literally impossible (a village cannot be on a river) – means “on the bank of the Ganges”

“Lakṣaṇā is the power of a word to indicate something other than its literal meaning. It is the bridge between the literal and the intended.”

Vyañjanā – Suggestive Meaning

Vyañjanā is the suggestive or evocative meaning, used in poetry and scripture to suggest deeper truths beyond literal or indirect meaning.

Term	Meaning
Vyañjanā	The suggestive, evocative meaning
Example	Poetic expressions that suggest mood, feeling, or deeper truth

“Vyañjanā is the power of suggestion. It is the highest power of words, used in the Upanishads to point to the indescribable Brahman.”

For a deeper exploration of the powers of words, refer to the article on “Language and Metaphor in the Upanishads” in this series.

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Part 2: Why Lakṣaṇā Is Necessary

When the Literal Meaning Fails

The literal meaning (abhidhā) works when the words are used in their ordinary sense. But in scripture, and especially in Advaita, the literal meaning often leads to contradiction.

Problem	Example
Literal meaning is impossible	“The village is on the Ganges” – impossible literally
Literal meaning leads to contradiction	“Tat tvam asi” – two different entities cannot be identical
Literal meaning is insufficient	The Upanishads describe Brahman as “neti, neti” (not this, not this) – literal descriptions fail

“When literal meaning fails, lakṣaṇā takes over. The word points beyond itself. It indicates what it cannot directly say.”

The Purpose of Lakṣaṇā

The purpose of lakṣaṇā is to convey meaning that cannot be conveyed literally.

Purpose	Example
To resolve apparent contradictions	“Tat tvam asi” – identity of “That” and “Thou”
To indicate the ineffable	Brahman cannot be described literally – only indicated
To point beyond empirical distinctions	The Self is neither this nor that

“Lakṣaṇā is not a trick. It is a necessity. The highest truth cannot be captured in literal language. Lakṣaṇā is the method by which scripture points to what cannot be said.”

For a deeper exploration of the limits of language, refer to the article on “Why the Upanishads Are Philosophical, Not Merely Religious” in this series.

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Part 3: The Three Types of Lakṣaṇā

Jahallakṣaṇā – Abandoning the Literal

Jahallakṣaṇā (jahat = abandoning) occurs when the literal meaning is completely abandoned because it is impossible.

Aspect	Meaning
How it works	The literal meaning is impossible, so it is abandoned entirely
The indicated meaning	A related meaning is substituted
Example	“The village is on the Ganges” – literal: village on water (impossible); indicated: village on the bank of the Ganges

“In jahallakṣaṇā, the literal meaning is thrown away. It cannot be used. A related meaning is indicated. The word points to something else.”

Ajahallakṣaṇā – Retaining the Literal

Ajahallakṣaṇā (ajahat = not abandoning) occurs when the literal meaning is retained but not sufficient, so an additional meaning is indicated.

Aspect	Meaning
How it works	The literal meaning is retained, but a secondary meaning is added
The indicated meaning	Both literal and indicated meanings are present
Example	“The red is running” – literal: the color red is running (impossible? color cannot run); indicated: the red-horse or red-turbaned man is running

“In ajahallakṣaṇā, the literal meaning is not abandoned. It is kept. But an additional meaning is indicated. The word means both the literal and the indicated.”

Jahad-Ajahallakṣaṇā – Both Abandoning and Retaining

Jahad-ajahallakṣaṇā (jahat + ajahat) is the most important type for Advaita. It partially abandons the literal and partially retains it.

Aspect	Meaning
How it works	Part of the literal meaning is abandoned; part is retained
The indicated meaning	A third meaning emerges from the combination
Example in Advaita	“Tat tvam asi” – the empirical “That” (creator God) is abandoned; the empirical “Thou” (body-mind) is abandoned; the pure consciousness underlying both is retained and indicated

“Jahad-ajahallakṣaṇā is the key to unlocking the Mahavakyas. The literal meanings are partially abandoned. The pure consciousness behind them is indicated. The impossible identity becomes possible.”

For a complete understanding of jahad-ajahallakṣaṇā, refer to the article on “Mahāvākyas Explained” in this series.

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Part 4: Lakṣaṇā in “Tat Tvam Asi”

The Problem

“Tat tvam asi” (That thou art) is the most famous Mahavakya. Literally, it says two different things are identical.

Word	Literal Meaning	Problem
Tat (That)	Brahman as Ishvara (creator God)	With attributes, separate from the individual
Tvam (Thou)	The individual self (jiva)	With body, mind, ego, separate from God
Asi (Art)	Identity	How can two different things be identical?

“The literal reading seems impossible. ‘That’ (Brahman) is infinite, all-knowing, all-powerful. ‘Thou’ (the individual) is limited, ignorant, powerless. How can they be identical? The literal meaning cannot be intended.”

The Resolution – Jahad-Ajahallakṣaṇā

The resolution is jahad-ajahallakṣaṇā. Part of the literal meaning is abandoned; part is retained.

Element	What Is Abandoned	What Is Retained
“That” (Tat)	The attributes of Ishvara (creator God)	Pure consciousness (Brahman)
“Thou” (Tvam)	The attributes of the body-mind-ego	Pure consciousness (Ātman)

“That which is abandoned in ‘That’ is the limiting adjuncts (upādhis) – the status of creator, omniscience, omnipotence. That which is abandoned in ‘Thou’ is the limiting adjuncts – the body, mind, ego, ignorance. What remains in both is pure consciousness. That is identical. Tat tvam asi – That pure consciousness is this pure consciousness. You are that.”

The Resulting Meaning

After applying jahad-ajahallakṣaṇā, the Mahavakya means:

Phrase	Meaning
Tat tvam asi	The pure consciousness that is the substratum of “That” is the same as the pure consciousness that is the substratum of “Thou.” You are not the body, mind, or ego. You are pure consciousness. And that pure consciousness is Brahman.

“The Mahavakya does not say ‘John is God.’ It says ‘The Self in you is Brahman.’ The body is not Brahman. The mind is not Brahman. The ego is not Brahman. But the pure consciousness that witnesses them – that is Brahman. That is what you are.”

For a complete understanding of “Tat tvam asi,” refer to the article on “Ātman and Brahman Explained” in this series.

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Part 5: Lakṣaṇā in Other Mahavakyas

Aham Brahmasmi (I Am Brahman)

Word	Literal Meaning	Lakṣaṇā Resolution
Aham (I)	The ego, the body-mind	Pure consciousness (Ātman)
Brahma	The creator God	Pure consciousness (Brahman)
Asmi (Am)	Identity	Identity of pure consciousness in both

“When you say ‘I am Brahman,’ you do not mean your body is God. You mean the pure consciousness that is the witness of your body, mind, and ego – that pure consciousness is Brahman. The ego is abandoned. The pure consciousness is retained.”

Ayam Ātmā Brahma (This Self Is Brahman)

Word	Literal Meaning	Lakṣaṇā Resolution
Ayam (This)	The immediate, present self	The witness, not the body
Ātmā (Self)	The individual self	Pure consciousness
Brahma	Creator God	Pure consciousness

“The word ‘this’ points directly to your immediate experience. Not the ‘I’ that you think you are. The ‘I’ that you actually are – the awareness reading these words. That awareness is Brahman. Not later. Not somewhere else. This. Here. Now.”

Prajñānam Brahma (Consciousness Is Brahman)

Word	Literal Meaning	Lakṣaṇā Resolution
Prajñānam	Consciousness, awareness	Pure consciousness
Brahma	Creator God	Pure consciousness

“This Mahavakya requires less lakṣaṇā because it does not juxtapose two different entities. It directly states: Consciousness is Brahman. But even here, we must not mistake ‘consciousness’ for the mind’s activity. It is pure awareness.”

For a complete understanding of all four Mahavakyas, refer to the article on “Mahāvākyas Explained” in this series.

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Part 6: Common Questions

Is lakṣaṇā the same as metaphor?
No. Metaphor is a figure of speech that compares two things. Lakṣaṇā is a logical necessity when literal meaning fails. Metaphor is optional; lakṣaṇā is required for understanding certain scriptural statements.

Can lakṣaṇā be applied to any statement?
No. Lakṣaṇā is used only when the literal meaning is either impossible or leads to contradiction. It is not applied arbitrarily.

Who decides when to use lakṣaṇā?
The context determines. Traditional hermeneutics (Mīmāṃsā) provides rules for when literal meaning is intended and when lakṣaṇā must be applied. A qualified teacher (guru) guides the student.

Is lakṣaṇā only for scripture?
No. Lakṣaṇā is used in everyday language as well. “The village is on the Ganges” is an example from everyday speech. But in Advaita, lakṣaṇā is essential for understanding scripture.

What is the difference between lakṣaṇā and vyañjanā?
Lakṣaṇā indicates a meaning that is directly related to the literal meaning. Vyañjanā suggests a meaning that is not directly related – it evokes, hints, suggests. Vyañjanā is more indirect than lakṣaṇā.

What is the single most important application of lakṣaṇā in Advaita?
The Mahavakya “Tat tvam asi.” Without jahad-ajahallakṣaṇā, the statement seems contradictory. With it, the non-dual truth is revealed. You are not the body, mind, or ego. You are pure consciousness. And that pure consciousness is Brahman.

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Summary

Lakṣaṇā is the indirect or figurative meaning of a word, used when the literal meaning (vācyārtha) is either impossible or insufficient to convey the intended sense. In language, words have three powers: abhidhā (literal meaning), lakṣaṇā (indirect meaning), and vyañjanā (suggestive meaning). Lakṣaṇā has three types: jahallakṣaṇā (abandoning the literal meaning entirely), ajahallakṣaṇā (retaining the literal meaning while adding an indicated meaning), and jahad-ajahallakṣaṇā (partially abandoning and partially retaining the literal meaning). The third type is essential for Advaita Vedanta, especially for understanding Mahavakyas like “Tat tvam asi” (That thou art). The literal reading suggests identity between two different entities – “That” (Brahman as Ishvara) and “Thou” (the individual self with body-mind). This seems contradictory. Jahad-ajahallakṣaṇā resolves the contradiction: the attributes of Ishvara (creator, omniscient, omnipotent) are abandoned; the attributes of the individual (body, mind, ego) are abandoned; what remains in both is pure consciousness. That pure consciousness is identical. “Tat tvam asi” means: The pure consciousness that is the substratum of “That” is the same as the pure consciousness that is the substratum of “Thou.” You are not the body, mind, or ego. You are pure consciousness. And that pure consciousness is Brahman. The same method applies to other Mahavakyas: “Aham Brahmasmi” (I am Brahman), “Ayam Ātmā Brahma” (This Self is Brahman), and “Prajñānam Brahma” (Consciousness is Brahman). Lakṣaṇā is not a trick. It is a necessity. The highest truth cannot be captured in literal language. Lakṣaṇā is the method by which scripture points beyond words to the non-dual reality. Understand lakṣaṇā. Read the Mahavakyas. See what they point to. Be free.

Om Shanti Shanti Shanti.